Natural Science: Volcanoes

The relentless motions of tectonic plates, the uplift and the erosion of mountain ranges, and the evolution of living organisms are processes which can only be fully appreciated across the deep time of geology.But some of the processes at work in our planet can manifest all too suddenly, changing the landscape and destroying lives on a very human timescale: volcanoes. Superimpose a map of active volcanoes on a world map showing the boundaries of the tectonic plates and their association is obvious.The ring of fire around the Pacific, for example, is clearly associated with the plate boundaries. But where is the molten rock that feeds them coming from? Why are volcanoes different from each other, with some producing gentle eruptions and regular trickles of molten lava, whilst others erupt in devastating explosions? And why are some volcanoes, such as those of Hawaii, in the middle of the Pacific, far from any obvious plate boundary?The molten rockThe key to understanding volcanoes com es from understanding how rocks melt. For a start, they do not have to melt completely, so the bulk of the mantle remains solid even though it gives rise to a fluid, molten magma.That means that the melt does not have the same composition as the bulk of the mantle. As long as the so-called dihedral angles, the angles at which the mineral grains in mantle rock meet, are large enough, the rock behaves like a porous sponge and the melt can be squeezed out.Calculations show how it will tend to flow together and rise quite rapidly in a sort of wave, producing lava at the surface in the sort of quantities seen in typical eruptions (The University of Sydney, 2006).Melting does not necessarily involve increasing the temperature. It can result from decreasing the pressure. So a plume of hot, solid mantle material will begin to melt as it rises and the pressure upon it reduces. In the case of a mantle plume, that can happen at considerable depths (McKenzie, 1984, p. 717).Beneath the mid-ocean ridge system, the melting takes place at much shallower depths. Here there is little or no mantle lithosphere and the hot asthenosphere comes close to the surface.The lower pressures here can result in a larger proportion of the rock melting, perhaps 20 or 25%, supplying magma at about the right rate to sustain sea floor spreading and produce an ocean crust 7 kilometres thick. Most of the ocean ridge eruptions pass unnoticed as they take place more than 2,000 metres underwater as rapidly quenched pillow lavas (Basin Topography, 2006).But seismic studies have revealed magma chambers a few kilometres beneath the sea floor in parts of the ridges, particularly in the Pacific and Indian oceans, though there is also some evidence of magma chambers beneath the mid-Atlantic ridge. Where a mantle plume coincides with an ocean ridge system, as in the case of Iceland, more magma is generated and the ocean crust is thicker, in this case rising above the sea to form Iceland (Scarth, 1994, p.14- 17).HawaiiThe Big Island of Hawaii has welcoming people and friendly volcanoes. The town of Hilo is probably more at risk from tsunamis triggered by distant earthquakes than from the great 4,000-metre volcano of Mauna Loa that looms behind it.To the north and west lie the other Hawaiian islands and the Emperor seamount chain, tracing the long journey of the Pacific plate across the hot spot of an underlying mantle plume (Scarth, 1994, p.42). To the south of the Big Island of Hawaii is Loihi, the newest of the Hawaiian volcanoes.As yet it has not broken the surface of the Pacific, but it has already built a high mountain of basalt on the ocean floor and will almost certainly become an island above water before long (14). Because Hawaiian lava is very fluid, it can spread over a wide area and does not tend to form very steep slopes.Such volcanoes are sometimes known as shield volcanoes, and they can flood basalt over a wide area. Often, a particular flow will develop a tunnel around i t as the outer crust solidifies but the lava continues to flow inside. When the supply of lava ceases, the tunnel can drain and be left hollow (41-42).

Education †Teacher Essay

The â€Å"education† has been derived from Latin words â€Å"Educare†. â€Å"Educare† means to train, to bring and lead out’, so we can say that education is to bring up, to developing and shaping up the individual talent and his inner potentialities. Definition: Education is a process in which and by which the knowledge, characters and behavior of the human being are shaped and molded. Education is lead to the enlightenment of mankind. According Imam Gzali Imam Ghazali said that education is a process which enables an individual to distinguish between the true and false, the good and bad, the right conduct and the evil doing. Educational policy: Education policy refers to the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation of education systems. Education occurs in many forms for many purposes through many institutions. For example early childhood education, two and four year colleges or universities, graduate and professional education, adult education and job training. Therefore, education policy can directly affect the education people engage in at all ages. Policy 1979 Page 1 National Education Policy 1979 By Roll No. 01,48,12,37,41 National Education Policy, 1979. On 29 March 1972 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto announced the education policy. As a result all private education institutes were taken into national grip and brought changes in all other aspect of education. July 1977 General Zai-ul-Haq announced that new administration wanted to impose Islamic system. They considered it their aim. They believed that goals could not be achieved unless educational system based on Islamic system. For this purpose General Zia-ul-Haq conducted the conference of teachers, educationalist and of intelligent people. This conference gave recommendation for whole educational system. Muhammad Ali Khan announced this national policy. The main purpose of this policy was to impose education on Islamic system and to impose Urdu language by means of education. Main aim of the National Educational Conference 1979 was: ? Fostering loyalty to Islam. ? Creation of concept of Muslim Ummah. ? Promotion of science and technical education. Recommendation The main recommendation of the education policy of 1979 was following. 1. Elementary Education ? ? ? ? ? In coming five years 13000 schools will have opened Schools will have opened for those girls that were deprived from formal education Enable the students to stand on their courage Residential irony and training centers will have constructed for rural female teacher 5000 masjid will have constructed and books will have provided free of cost 2. Secondary Education ? 2000 new secondary institutes will have opened and converted 1000 middle schools into secondary institutes ? In the curriculum of secondary education new subject will have added ? Scope of secondary education will have intended so that students found take part in productive activities ? Secondary education will have considered from nine class to second year Policy 1979 Page 2 National Education Policy 1979 By Roll No. 01,48,12,37,41 3. Higher Education ? In selected girls colleges of all provinces post graduates classes will have started ? Valuation will have given to teachers of University to extend their education & professional training ? Scholarship will have given to intelligent students and teachers ? In coming five years no other new universities except women universities. New buildings of colleges will have constructed for girls and boys ? Provincial government will responsible to bear all expenses of universities Features: It was said in nation policy 1979 that education is a continuous process. Any educational policy cannot complete without education. Main features of recommendation are given below. 1. Masjid School It was planned in national educational policy that masjid schools masjid will have opened in these schools other subjects will have together alongside primary education. Moreover it was decided to open 5000 masjid school 2. Women Education It was recommended in policy to establish separate women university. Main point was to get attention of women towards education 3. Special Education It is also recommend in policy that central government will have prepared plans for the education of blinds, handicap able. Such person will have prepared to ea rn their livelihood 4. Establishment of private Institution In national policy establishment of private institute were allowed in this way education of inhabitants of country will have increased. Policy 1979 Page 3 National Education Policy 1979 By Roll No. 01,48,12,37,41 5. Mohallah Schools It was recommended to open Mohallah schools for those girls that could not get admissions in formal educational institutes. For this purpose 5000 school were opened 6. Religious Education Arabic will have compulsory up to 8th class. It will have taught as a compulsory subject 7. Village workshop schools It was recommended in policy to open workshops schools for those children who leave study. Main purpose was to enable them to earn their livelihood. 8. Medium of instruction It was planned in policy that all English medium school that get government aids will consider Urdu language as a medium of instruction IMPACT: 1. Clear foundation of education In national educational policy Islamic Ideology of life was considered as base of education 2. University Grants Commission It was decided in policy to give university grant commission to university to save their problems moreover it was said that government would bear expenses of university and these amount were given a grant commission 3. Urdu Language. It also decided in educational policy that all official work will have performed in Urdu language. It was compulsory for English medium schools that get government aids to adopt language selected bay provincial government Policy 1979 Page 4 National Education Policy 1979 By Roll No. 01,48,12,37,41 4. Islamic Madras’s According to the decision of national policy those people were held for public services that have certificate from Islamic Madras’s. in this way benefits of Madras increased and preached Islam 5. Teacher welfare Residential colony was constructed for rural teachers. For getting external & in internal education scholarship was given to teachers Milestones achieved by Education Policy 1979: 1. The medium of instruction was switched over to Urdu in government schools. 2. Private schools were allowed to have English as the medium of instruction. This led to the operation of two different systems of education within the country, one for those who could afford private education, and one for the rest of the nation. This two tier system contributed to a widening socio-economic inequity with the consequent feeling of injustice and resentment. 3. The policy of nationalization was reversed. 4. The private sector was encouraged to open schools. 5. The funding of universities was made through the Federal government. Suggested strategies to achieve goals of Policy: 1. Merging madras and traditional education. 2. Urdu as a medium of education. 3. Effective participation of community in literacy programs. 4. Linked scientific and technical education. 5. Separate instates for male and female. 6. Mosque schools. Implementation: This policy was not implemented properly and failed due to lack of planning and financial resources. Policy 1979.

The Importance of Setting in a Rose for Emily

Setting often provides more then just a mere backdrop for the action in the story. It is probably the most important part of the putting together a story. In this story the setting is a reflection of the character as much as the town. The physical setting, time setting and cultural settings are all important parts of this short story, Physical setting is to give the readers a sense of what the environment is for the story. The physical setting for A rose for Emily is important because it reflect the life of Emily, the main character. In this story the setting takes place in the southern town of Jefferson. Miss Emily Grierson lived in a house that had a â€Å"big squarish frame that had once been white, decorated with cupolas and spires and scrolled balconies. † A house so beautiful it was meant for some body of high stature. The house was so old that is â€Å"smelled of dust and disuse. † The scenes in this story most take place in the town and in Miss Emily’s house. A great example of a physical setting is when Faulkner describes the town’s men sprinkling lime around her property to get rid of a bad smell. â€Å"As they re crossed the lawn, a window that had been darkness was lighted and Miss Emily sat in it, the light behind her, and her upright torso motionless as that of an idol. † It was almost like you were there with the men feeling the same creepy feeling, when seeing her in the window. Another great physical description of setting is when Faulkner describes Miss Emily’s death. She dies in one of the downstairs rooms, in a heavy walnut bed with a curtain, her grey head propped on a pillow yellow and moldy with age and lack of sunlight. † Faulkner does a great job at leaving us with a powerful image of the physical. Time period is an essential part to any story. It helps the reader to understand the language that is used and the way it was acceptable to live and dress. The time setting for this story takes place in the late 1800’s and the early 1900’s. In an era when black people were slaves and people of high stature were respected by all. The town in this story grows with the time but the main character Miss Emily will not. â€Å"The town had just let in the contracts for paving the side walks. † When the newer generation becomes the back bone and spirit of the town Miss Emily didn’t move ahead with the times. â€Å"When the town got free postal delivery, Miss Emily alone refused to let them fasten the metal numbers above her door and attach a mailbox to them. It was like Miss Emily was stuck in a particular time in the life and wanted to live like that. Culture is also important to the setting in the story being told. Miss Emily was a Grierson. The high and might Grierson’s as they were known in Jefferson. Faulkner talks about how â€Å"Miss Emily had gone to join the representatives of the august names where they lay in a cedar-bemused cemetery among the ranked and anonymous graves of the union and confederate soldiers who fell at the battle of Jefferson. By describing this culture setting Faulkner is setting the tone for what kind of character Emily is, and what kind of family she had. The Grierson’s were a powerful family in Jefferson, royalty if you will, and Emily was the last of this great family. He then goes on to describe how â€Å"Colonel Sartoris invented an involved tale to the effect that Miss Emily’s father had loaned money to the town, which the town, as a matter of business preferred this way of repayment. † Remitting Miss Emily’s taxes was a way of showing respect for her name. Making up this tale was something only a man of his ranking at the time could do and a tale that only a woman would believe. When the town started to smell the bad smell and the men had sprinkled lime on her property to rid the bad smell. The town did not want to call her out on it because as Judge Stevens said â€Å"will you accuse a lady to her face of smelling bad? † The towns’ people all had their suspicions of what the bad smell really was. â€Å"She carried her head high enough- -even when we believed that she was fallen. â€Å"It was as if she demanded more then ever the recognition of her dignity as the last Grierson, as if it had wanted to touch of earthiness to reaffirm her imperviousness. By understanding A Rose for Emily one can see how much of an impact setting can have on the life of a person. The way it can shape one’s thoughts is incredible and sometimes unbearable to believe. Whether the setting is physical, time, or culture it is as you can se e a very important part of any story, and enables the reader to understand the character on a deeper level.

A knowledge base for Accredited Green Buildings around the world Dissertation

A knowledge base for Accredited Green Buildings around the world - Dissertation Example While BREEAM system of accreditation is more in use in UK, LEEDS system of green building accreditation is more popularly implemented in the US and other countries throughout the life cycle of a green building. 11 Chapter Two: Literature Review 11 2.1 Green Buildings 13 2.2 Concept of Green Buildings 14 2.3 Principles of Green Building 14 2.4 Rating Systems 15 2.5 BREEAM Rating System 16 2.6 BREEAM awards 17 2.7 BREEAM advantages and disadvantages 18 2.8 LEED Rating System 19 2.9 LEED certifications 20 2.10LEED’s advantages and disadvantages 22 2.11 Summary 22 Chapter Three 23 3 Methodology 23 3.1 Secondary Data 24 3.2 Primary Data 25 3.3 Quantitative Research 27 3.4 Method of Data Analysis 27 3.5 Summary 28 Chapter Four: Analysis 28 4.1 BREEAM Award Ratings 29 4.2 BREEAM Offices 29 4.3 LEED Certified Buildings 32 4.4 LEED New Construction 32 4.5 LEED for Existing Buildings 33 4.6 LEED for Core and Shell 34 4.7 LEED for Commercial Interiors 35 4.8 BREEAM vs. LEED 36 4.12 Summa ry 39 Chapter Five: Discussion 40 5.1 BREEAM Rating Systems Accreditations 40 5.3 LEED Rating System Accreditations 45 Chapter Six 46 6 Conclusion 47 References 48 Bibliography 53 APPENDICES 54 Abstract The intention of this report was to analyse the green buildings accreditations and to determine the differences between BREAM and LEED ratings for green buildings. The report specifically focused on tasks and requirements of the Green Buildings all over the world. Both primary and secondary evidence were collected, compared and correlated. The evidence gathered has been analyzed and primary findings were revealed. The intended outcome of this report was to discover the different types of accreditations that each rating system faces and to evaluate which is better. It comes out that while BREEAM is more successful and of high standard than LEED in UK, LEED has more value in other parts including US. There is also an effort to merge the best practices of all the accreditations to frame new building regulations in UK by 2019. While this effort is gaining precedence in the UK, other countries are set to follow. The results are presented using graphs, tables and figures. Evidence is divided by awards, certifications from each category under BREEAM and LEED rating systems. Chapter One: Introduction According to Yudelson (2008, p. 5) â€Å"a green building is a one use design and construction practices that significantly reduce or eliminate the negative impact of buildings on the environment and occupants†. Green buildings are frequently known as eco-homes or sustainable buildings. They are designed and built to energy-efficient guidelines in order to have a positive economical and environmental impact over their life cycle (SustainableBuild, 2009). Green Building’s accreditations mean that there are some certifications upon Green Buildings that must always be considered. The accreditation process ensures that their certification practices are acceptable , typically meaning that they are competent to test and certify third parties, behave ethically, and employee suitable quality assurance. To examine Green Building’s accreditation, information from two Green Buildings Rating Systems are chosen as they are the most widely used rating systems across the world Those are: BREEAM: Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method, and it is based in UK LEED: Leadership in

Management Assignment Individual Report Research Paper

Management Assignment Individual Report - Research Paper Example The top government post such has ministries has been dominated by top military leaders. The military junta has been overseeing and controlling every aspect of the country ranging from the natural resources to economic affairs of the country. A former military general and Prime minister in the previous regime Mr Thein Sein was elected as the President of Myanmar4. However since President Thein Sein assumed office there is hope though minimal that the country is abandoning its dark past years of paranoid authoritarianism and poor economic management that has plunged the country into a den of poverty. Myanmar has been governed in secluded political environment5. President Thein Sein has showed interest in reviving the country’s economy and moving away from erratic political leadership whereby he freed a large number of political prisoners and also decentralised various sectors of the economy which has been under state control for the past 50 decades6. Myanmar has no stable judiciary system presently and therefore earning fair ruling and justice in the court systems of Myanmar is a toll order. The country has no stable regulatory framework considering that most of the laws and regulations were inherited from the former colonial master-British and no significant changes has been made to amend the laws despite the changes in the economic environment7. In relation to investment a few amendments have been made to bring sanity into the business environment. However bribery and corruption is the order of the day as there are no effective laws to curb such unethical business practice. The long decades of military junta rule characterised by economic mismanagement and lack of comprehensive labour laws has seen Myanmar workers subjected to harsh working conditions, forced labour, poor remuneration and as well as child labour8. Since President Thein Sein took power he has managed to decentralise the long-time held

SABMiller Case Analysis Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

SABMiller Analysis - Case Study Example The external environment for SABMiller in 2010 was conflicted by the inability to differentiate certain products in its portfolio of brands, namely the light beer categories, which accounts for 40 percent of total beer sales in the U.S; a significant volume. In Western Europe, well-established premium brands were estimated to be driving consumer demand based on their buying trends. This was a difficulty considering that new executive leadership worked toward reducing the Miller brand portfolio from 50 down to just 10 or 12 products. Divestment of premium brands that occurred during the earlier part of the 2000s seemed to limit the ability of SABMiller to re-establish brand presence for low-performing beer. Clearly, SABMiller is affected by the consumer behaviour preferences driven by trends or consumption patterns and must reengineer processes to meet these changing demands. In 2010, it was also clear that SABMiller is impacted by events in the external market, such as South African AIDS pandemics, confidence in certain currency markets related to the stock market and trading, and other events that limit their short-term potential to gain revenue and/or market share. However, SABMiller understood these limitations and worked to leverage other activities to the best of their ability, especially considering that some external events like the AIDS scenario was completely outside of the control of strategic leadership and focus. Additionally, the external market was driven by joint ventures from some of the major players in the beer industry, thus limiting the ability to consider this a quality strategy that had once served them well, such as with Coors and other brands. Even though these had short-term revenue opportunities and cost reduction improvements, or streamlining operational functions, their long-term value was diminishing. The external market provided opportunities to combine resources with competition, however this strategy has long-term brand problems at the marketing level when similarly-priced products in a joint venture are competing with one another. Thus, finding new opportunities based on the external market characteristics were becoming increasingly difficult to innovate and implement. SABMiller’s competitive advantage SABMiller’s competitive advantage had been the ability to coordinate resources for acquisitions in order to extend their portfolio of brands across Europe, em erging economies and the United States. This drove considerable success from 2001 until 2009, such as the acquisition of Grolsch, Sarmat Brewery in the Ukraine, and multiple brewery purchases in the Chinese market. As indicated by the company’s cash flow statements, the improvement in total brand portfolios gave it more resources to seek acquisitions as a strategy for long-term growth and opportunity in emerging economies and locally. SABMiller fits the profile of a strategic leader when it comes to seeking opportunity through acquisition and divesting poor performing brands when required through external analysis and business process reengineering.

Summary for an article Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Summary for an article - Assignment Example Amateurism includes playing Hockey in a gentlemanly manner. Players were ejected for violating game rules. Amateurs did not play intensely for pay, but for peaceful fun. 3. The author states Hockey metamorphosed into a modern sport. Hockey, like modern sports, is bound by game rules. Hockey, like modern sports, is highly organized. Hockey, like modern sports, uses standard game equipments. 4. Further, Hockey’s modernization is grounded on the Canadian peacekeeper image. Game rules penalize violence. Rules reduce disorder in the game. Mass rowdiness is reduced to â€Å"peaceful† levels. 5. Further, Lacrosse, similar to Hockey, defies the British bourgeois sensibilities. Hockey defies British sensibilities of refinement. Hockey runs counter to British sensibilities of gentlemanliness. Hockey is a physical sport, not a refined sport. 6. Sports focused on resisting imported sports. Baggataway, a local sport is the national sport. The sport includes speed, skill, and violence. Baggatway was renamed Lacrosse. George Beers formulated the Lacrosse game rules ensure

The issue of regional currency unification Essay

The issue of regional currency unification - Essay Example However, the important and fundamental differences between the European Union and the other regions needs to be viewed critically, because the circumstances obtained in the case of EU with regard to the regional currency unification is significantly different compared to the other regions mainly in terms of political background, level of interactions among the member states, diplomatic relationships, cultural differences, historical political relationships among these countries, the level of maturity and understanding on the part of the various stakeholders with regard to the benefits that might arise out of currency unification. Apart from the economic considerations, which are not insurmountable in any case, the political situations in the different countries in the region both domestically and in relation to the neighboring countries and the leadership issues in these countries could act as a stumbling block in the progress towards regional currency unification. Economic integrati on in the developing world Currency substitution in the backdrop of globalization is the common phenomenon in many countries. US Dollar has been used in several countries outside the US, and Euro outside EU countries simultaneously alongside the local currencies. This practice is prevalent in most of the countries in travel, tourism and hotel industries, where the US Dollar and Euro are accepted freely. There are many full- fledged money changers registered with the centrals banks of various countries doing business around the world, who exchange currencies of a country for currencies of other countries. Currency movements across the borders have substantially increased over the period of time on account of remittances by the nationals residing in foreign countries consequent upon liberalization and globalization of economies. In the integration process of the global economy, absolute control over supply and circulation of money by the state has given way to the unification of regio nal currencies, which may subsequently pave way for common currency for the world as a whole or at the best few currencies. Debates on replacement of national currency with the common currency by all the countries in a specified region, as in the case of Euro, have gathered momentum at regional level in various parts of the globe. For instance, the idea of common currency for SAARC countries (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation), ASEAN countries, regional African countries and so on are on conceptual level at various stages. Regional unification of currencies The move towards regional currency regime need not be considered as a surrender of sovereignty by the nations in the unification process. Rather it is a process of coming together by various nations recognizing the need for unification, justified by the benefits of currency unification in the economic development of the constituent countries. According to Cohen (2003, p. 2), the emergence of regional currencies can be regarded as a logical corollary of the intense competitive contest among monies – a Darwinian struggle where, ultimately, only the fittest may survive. The decision of a country with regard to unification of currencies is dependent upon several factors such as size of the economy, stability in the financial markets, and its exposure to international trade, political situation in the country and its diplomatic relationship with the other countries in the

Various Factors Involved in Employee Performance Essay

Various Factors Involved in Employee Performance - Essay Example Also, in today's business community, there is far more focus on customer satisfaction. Performance appraisal (PA) is an important part of any organization, but according to human resources consultant John Drake, it seldom improves employee performance and sometimes even has a negative effect (1). Within any company, documentation is necessary for legal purposes, for feedback, corporate planning, employee development, and salary administration. Structure is needed in a PA plan, but it must be set up in a way that will help an employee understand and try to meet company goals and will best reflect the company's identity in the marketplace (Introduction). In the management process, it is necessary for a company to develop an initial plan for performance appraisal by meeting with a new employee and having a discussion that addresses key job responsibilities, a common understanding of company goals and objectives, the most important competencies needed, and an appropriate individual development plan (Grote 2.1). It is not enough just to pass out a manual, as has been the case in the past, and expect the employee to follow it. Without this initial discussion, further appraisal of the employee's attributes cannot be honestly determined. If an employee understands at the outset what is expected, his or her evaluation at different intervals will offer a more realistic appraisal of the employee's development. Once a performance appraisal method has been developed, the various factors that influence performance can be evaluated. With the current development of what might be called virtual organizations, it is employee relations, market relations and various hybrids of these two units that make up the overall performance factors for employees in today's global companies. Strict working hours and a single workplace have given way to a workforce that might be working from home or on the road as well as in the office itself. In the virtual marketplace, the physical employee becomes a combination of internal and external employees at different levels of training and expertise. In determining an appraisal method that takes all of this into consideration, it is necessary to recognize the factors that have not worked in the past and to replace them with positive factors based on a changing business arena. The boundary between organizations and the marketplace is changing as employees become more i nvolved in organizational structure. Labor agreements and internal company rulebooks are giving way to service contracts in companies that are beginning to depend on information technology (Huiskamp & Kluytmans). With the Internet bringing customers into the mix, changing expectations call for a more fluid method of appraisal based on individual performance within a flexible time frame, and in a global economy, changes are inevitable and ongoing. Factors Influencing Employee Performance From Negative to Positive: 1) Monetary incentives - According to Drake (14), "you cannot expect a performance appraisal to improve performance when it is also linked directly to rewards (salary or promotion)." Drake sets forth a situation in which a plant manager is limited in his ability to get a salary increase for an employee unless he rates the employee at least at "5" on a scale of 1-7, which means a rating of "outstanding." If the

Christianity and Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Christianity and Philosophy - Essay Example The fundamental method of western philosophy is the use of reasoning to evaluate arguments. Christianity has contributed to Western thoughts and beliefs. Greek philosophy has a great influence on Christianity, so much so that the characteristics, manner, and ethics of the Church came from Greek philosophy. Greek philosophers believed in one God. They were Monotheists. This has led to the main method of western philosophy which is to use reasoning in order to evaluate arguments. Throughout the world, people from various cultures argue which philosophy method is correct. As stated by McCabe and Kalthoff (1907, p. 60), "Since Xenophanes wrote in the sixth century of the one God, supreme above all gods and men, not to be compared to mortals either in shape or thought, all eye, all ear, all mind, the idea of God's unity became an essential part of Greek philosophy." In other words, the ancient Greeks (the Hellenes) are key contributors to Christianity's impact on philosophy. In return, Ch ristianity owes its debt to the Greeks. Western philosophy is influenced by Greco-Roman philosophy which consisted of philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Then the Medieval philosophy came about and this was when Augustine of Hippo and Albertus Magnus, Christian philosophers who were also scholars, started their writings.

World War 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

World War 3 - Essay Example Therefore, he outlined the major factors that would contribute to this war. Thus, according to Mills, the following factors would contribute to the occurrence of the third world war: Power Elites created by the US industrial complex According to C. Wright Mills, the structure of national policy was centered on politics and military supremacy. Therefore, if a country had to achieve economic prosperity, it had to be superior on the war front and in its military organization (Goertzel, 242). Thus, economic prosperity was to be achieved through the assertion of political and military power, instead of applying the economic principles which drive the economy. Therefore, the economic elites who lead major organizations were also the same who drove the political life of both the USA and the USSR, the major rivals in the foreseen war (Goertzel, 242). Making the political power an elite component, where the political and military authority was centered on the economic elite’s point of view posed some war danger. According to Mills, the political, the military and the economic elites shared a common world view (Goertzel, 243).... Mills observed that the elites were using the media as their tool of manipulation and propaganda to mislead the masses, whom they considered inferior. Therefore, with the economic elites at the helm of political and military authority, a devastating war was inevitable (Goertzel, 242). The conspiracy and poor definition of reality According to the Americans, the enemy of the people was Russia. This faulty definition, which substituted the reality with the preconceived notion of a specified enemy, could ultimately cause another devastating war (Goertzel, 241). The actual definition of the enemy is war, since any war, irrespective of the parties involved, has the same damaging effects. Therefore, while the Americans substituted the real definition of the enemy and personalize it to suit their interest, they created an environment for pursuing the wrong target (Goertzel, 243). If the American could perceive war as the common enemy, they would work towards ensuring that no more war could be experienced in the world, owing to the damaging effects caused by the previous world wars. Nevertheless, through the erratic perception of Russia as the enemy, they were determined to continue the warfare until they subdued it (Goertzel, 243). This inevitably made the third World War a reality that could not be escaped. Additionally, the Americans based their arguments on a false premise that peace with the USSR could not be achieved unless through war. This made it clear that the Americans would pursue the Russians. The same case applied for the Russians, who perceived the USA as an aggressive opponent, who could not relent until a war determined who was powerful. This prepared a stage for the most devastating war in the history of the world, which could

Teenagers sometimes complain Essay Example for Free

Teenagers sometimes complain Essay Teenagers first come into this world as a bundle of joy, but some object. As children grow and become teenagers, the problems start. Problems such as relationships, school and even monetary are rampant. So what do children do when they run into trouble? They go to their parents; so do teenagers. Teenagers in Singapore go through lots of education. From young in primary school till university for many. Education can therefore be said to be very formal and very fast paced and competitive. Teachers and parents already at this stage have their students or childrens lives planned out, but teenagers may think differently. Our elders think that teenagers need help and are always wrong. Certainly there are numerous occasions when we simply cannot do without our parents. But for the many others, we need to take a stand and speak out for whats right. Let me give you this example. There is a boy. He goes to school. Then he goes to secondary school. He is now a teenager. The O level examination is approaching, and all he does is try to study. That is good. Then the adult steps in. A responsible one would say this: How are you doing? Do you need help? Just ask me. Dont be shy. Then on the other hand an adult with fish mongering experience would say this: Aiyah! Whole day study study. You know last time My parents worked day and night, and I started working when I was your age! Now all you can do is sit here and read your book. So this is the main reason behind teenagers being treated like children. Sometimes its not the teenagers fault but instead it is the adults fault. You have just seen how family backgrounds affect how people view children. Now I shall let you see what happens when it is the teenagers fault. A good teenager would do what he or she is supposed to do to become a good person. Like so: Teacher, can I ask you a question? What topics are coming out for the tests? Then the bad one would say: Aiyah! Tests are always coming, but they never come, study wastes time, study for what? You see the good teenager has a sort of worry for his future, whereas the bad one does not. It is this mere worry that sets us about our lives. Without it, our lives would be as meaningless as the aimless punks. Adults also think about our future. Because we dont. They care incessantly about the smallest things in life, probably because when they were young, they faced the same demands of society. So it is because of this care and concern for responsibility that motivates us to behave like children, so the adults can guide us toward the right path. Now I know, what you qualify determines whether you are a child or an adult.

Framework Advocating CSOs Analysis

Framework Advocating CSOs Analysis Take a case of actually existing civil society and critically discuss the extent to which your case has managed to achieve any democratic or developmental progress. Championed as the panacea for development ills under the neoliberal New Policy Agenda (McIllwaine;1998), civil society has become the sweetheart of development donors (Barr, Fafchamps Owens, 2005;659), famed for its ability to incubate participatory development[ma1][ma2]. Civil society is conceptualised as an independent third pillar between state and market, comprising of horizontal networks of associational groups with cross cut ties of kinship and patronage (Putnam, 1993). Within this network, citizens organize to pursue shared interests and influence policy in the public domain (UNDP, 2014). Civil society organisations (CSOs) can embody autonomous or NGO supported community based organisations, or can comprise of NGOs as primary agents of civil society themselves (Mohan, 2002[ma3]). Despite doubt surrounding the classification of NGOs as CSOs (Carmody, 2007), this essay will define NGOs as a variant of CSOs, as their primary purpose is influencing public policy (Edwards Hulme, 1997;24), and are independent from direct government control (UNDP, 2014[ma4][ma5]). Thus, for the reasons outlined, this essay will focus on the Voice2People programme of Christian Aid, an NGO based CSO. Ultimately, this essay will examine the extent to which the normative framework advocating CSOs as the missing middle between citizen and state (World Bank, 1996;114), represents the reality of actually existing civil society (Mamdani, 1996;19). It is in this sense that actually existing civil society is defined as the reality of CSOs in practise as largely dissonant from the normative promised agenda for change (Ibid). By analysing Christian Aids Voice2People programme, this essay will posit that the realities of actually existing civil society are divergent from the normative ideals placed upon it, and thus can achieve little democratic or developmental success. This essay will begin by demonstrating the normative and programmatic qualities perceived as inherent within CSOs, in particular their ability to facilitate participatory development, upon which donor funding is predicated (Igoe Kelsall, 2005). It will then outline the Voice2People programme rolled out by Christian Aid, in relation to the normative characteristics it is perceived to retain. Once the theoretical framework is outlined, this paper will then assess the extent to which these normative ideals diverge from reality of actually existing civil society. By outlining the flaws of the theoretical framework underlying the programme, and the problematic constraints it faced, this essay will conclude by arguing that contrary to normative perceptions, actually existing civil society in the case of the Voice2People programme, can achieve very little democratic or developmental progress. The normative characteristics of civil society organisations However, it is first essential to outline the perceived normative characteristics of CSOs in order to analyse their divergence from the empirical reality of actually existing civil society. These characteristics are normative in the sense they are expected rather than empirically validated. It[ma6][ma7] is also essential to underscore the ideological nature of these characteristics, which dovetail the neoliberal new policy agenda (Robinson, 2003;2) which embraces the democratic development paradigm (Banks, Edwards and Hulme; 2015, 710) in supporting inclusive participation to facilitate development (Mertz, 2012;54). Firstly, neoliberal theory posits CSOs as vehicles through which to build better citizens (Archer, 1994). Civil society is thus perceived as an arena for the cultivation of liberal norms, including participation and market rationality (Williams Young, 2012). CSOs become schools of liberal democracy (Banks, Edwards Hulme, 2015;4) educating citizens to take participate in formulating their own development agenda. Secondly, CSOs are also regarded as key actors in encouraging increased state accountability, as an active civil society enables choice, scrutinises errant governments, and leads to pluralised democracy (Mohan, 2002). CSOs thus demand state accountability to local demands (Suileman, 2013;245) an issue outlined by the Voice2People baseline report (Christian Aid, 2013). In addition, CSOs are also perceived by donors as vital facilitators of democratisation. This is because CSOs are seen to exhibit a pluralising function as they disperse the distribution of political power in s ociety through increasing channels of access (Hadenius Uggla, 1996) what Ndegwa (1996;3) terms the civil society political liberalisation thesis. Additionally, as Przewoski (1992) notes, CSOs also play a constitutive role in defining the rules of state/CSO interaction along democratic lines. Finally, the last perceived function of CSOs is facilitating localised empowerment, so communities can pursue their own development activities either through CSOs or as autonomous politically conscious citizens. This view posits the poor not as beneficiaries, but as controllers of the development process with the means to radically alter their own situation (Clark, 1991;201). However, for the sake of this essay, the above functions will be amalgamated into one role of facilitating participatory development the process through which stakeholders can influence and share control over development initiatives, decisions and resources that affect themselves (Worldbank, 1996b;4). This requires the participation of empowered groups in the design and implementation of development projects, and is dependent on a state open to pluralising the political arena to organisations such as CSOs who can demand accountability on behalf of their members. The[ma8] next section of this essay will outline the Voice2People programme rolled out by Christian Aid, which attempts to facilitate participatory development in Nigeria. A case of actually existing civil society Christian Aids Voice2People programme is a DFID funded programme worth  £2million (DFID, 2016), aiming to facilitate citizen-driven development and increased government accountability in Anambra State, Nigeria (Christian Aid, 2016;2). It is through this programme which aims to influence public development policy, that Christian Aid can be regarded as a CSO in its own right. Prior to the programme, the baseline report suggested that 54% of 1, 535 respondents in the area felt they were not able participate in making demands to state representatives, and that there was no accountability mechanism to ensure state compliance with local needs (Christian Aid, 2013;6-8). Consequently, the Voice2People community based programme utilised two strategies (outlined by Brown and Tandon;1994) in an attempt to rectify this democratic deficit (Warleigh, 2001;1). Firstly, Voice2People employed state reform strategies to secure agreements which guaranteed quarterly community engagement meetings, with the aim to precipitate democratic norms such as state accountability. Secondly, societal programmes such as the use of participatory rural appraisals (PRAs) intended to create community charters of needs, aiming to immerse all levels of community participation in development consultations (Christian Aid, 2016a;8). However, this next section will analyse the theoretical and practical barriers which constrain the Voice2People programme; an example of actually existing civil society (Mamdani, 1996:19); in achieving participatory development. Can Voice2People achieve participatory development? In the donor community, the perceived functions of CSOs are taken as normative and unproblematic. This is concerning as this next section will show, there are various theoretical and practical barriers which constrains actually existing civil society (in this case, the Voice2People programme) to achieving participatory development[ma9]. Theoretical barriers One[ma10] of the first theoretical constraints which limit the Voice2People programme and other CSO work in achieving participatory development, is the problematic dichotomy in which state and CSOs are theorised (Lewis, 2000). CSOs are perceived as autonomous agent able to impose community-formulated demands onto a democratic state. However, it is unwise to conceive civil society as unconstrained by the power of the state, as Hadenius and Uggla (1996) note, CSO inclusion is dependent on regime type, with autocratic regimes opposing CSO engagement due to desire to monopolise the political space (Clark, 1991[ma11]). Therefore, as Stewart (1997) suggests, the presence of CSOs does not instantly facilitate democratic engagement with states. In some cases, inclusion of CSOs into policy consultation is little more than PR to meet the criteria of debt relief. In the case of Voice2Protect, government legislation passed in July 2016 which requires a state-led regulatory body to oversee the wo rk of CSOs (Civicus, 2016), demonstrates the power of the Nigerian state in constraining the work of Voice2People. It is therefore too simplistic to theorise the state and CSOs as independent actors with equal agency in influencing public policy[ma12]. Moreover, it would also be unwise to suggest that even democratic states can adequately address the demands of CSOs, as due to the streamlining and weakening of state under structural adjustment, gridlock can occur, whereby the sheer volume of CSO interests and demands can lead to political impasse (Blair, 1997 in Lewis, 2002). This suggests that Voice2People is unable to achieve participatory development success either due to the constraining power of the state, or through lack of state capacity, notions largely ignored by the theoretical framework. This has led to the critique by some post-colonial scholars, who suggest that civil society as a concept has very little explanatory value for the complexities of African associational life (maia) which can include an autocratic state characterised by big men rule (cite). Therefore, although Voice2People established a working relationship with the House that was formalised with an agreement to hold quarterly meetings with members (Christian Aid, 2016;4), there are no constitutional mechanisms to guarantee the continuation of this interaction, and no clear capacity of the state to meet the demands forwarded by Voice2People. This is further evidenced by the Voice2People progress report which cites that citizens found it difficult to engage government officials si nce the governments lacked the financial power to undertaken any projects (Christian Aid, 2014;6). As well as the problematic dichotomy between state and CSOs, the theoretical underpinnings behind CSO led service provision also limits the extent to which Voice2People can achieve participatory development. Due to their closeness to intended beneficiaries, CSOs are regarded as ideal for replacing waning state services that have been decimated by structural adjustment (Carmody;2007). Empowerment therefore is economic in the liberal sense, as through the participation of contributing funds towards a community service project, one gets to become the controller of their own development. Voice2People utilises this approach to pacify the 46% of respondents who were not happy at allwith the level of state service provision (Christian Aid, 2013;6). Although seemingly locally appropriate, this approach is highly problematic as it reduces the concept of public welfare to mere private provision to the extent that citizens forego their sense of state entitlement (Kamat, 2003;156). CSO service p rovision, no matter how well intentioned, therefore reduces the state to a franchise state (Wood, 1997;1) ultimately unaccountable for the services provided to its citizens through other actors. Community based service provision as utilised by Voice2People therefore achieves very little democratic output, as any state accountability based on service provision is nullified, and replaced by self-dependency. Additionally, this project does little to increase development, as the limited financial accessibility of community funded services, means that the chronic poor seldom partake in this form of neoliberal participation and are thus excluded from accessing vital services. conclude [ma13][ma14] Practical constraints When aiming to facilitate participatory development, one of the practical constraints faced by Voice2Protect is the extent to which it can achieve full participation. In an attempt to facilitate inclusive participationVoice2People liaisons with established community structures (Christian Aid), to create charters of demands which prioritise community development needs (ibid). However, by working through established community structures such as chieftaincies, existing power relations are entrenched and reproduced (white). This new localism which essentialises established structures as microcosms of a homogenous community (mohan) is problematic, as it excludes traditionally ostracised groups from access to civil society participation. Additionally, community participation can also be co-opted by middle class hegemonic groups in a bid to access influences and resources (Mercer and green), often leading to disillusionment amongst the primordial public of traditionalist groups who interven tions aimed to target (Suiliman[ma15]). These issues occurred in the Voice2Project programme, whereby community mobilisation was misconstrued to have political bearings by stakeholders wanting to gain access (cite) and thus exclusive meetings were still utilised to buy-in community leadership for the middle classes(Cite). Conclude On a similar note, for Voice2Protect to achieve full democratic participation, there needs to be greater emphasis on the gendered implications of PRAs and other participatory tools, as some V2P communities are yet to adopt balanced representation in decision making platforms (cite). The time necessary to participate in decision making is problematic, as it reduces the time women dedicate to caregiving roles, therefore impeding female participation (Howell and Milligan[ma16]). This then leads to talking to men about women which is hardly democratic nor will ever understand the gendered development issues facing women as a group (Ardner). Concludeand addmore Additionally, one of the clearest practical factors constraining Voice2Protect in facilitating participatory development, is that contrary to building better citizens (archer), CSOs can often pluralise the political arena for the worst, incorporating the voice of extremist or violent community organisations (Lewis and Kanjii). A pluralised political arena thus legitimises vice as well as virtue (Robinson White, 1998;229), as well as ethnic chauvinism (diamond) as an exercise in liberal democracy. Although this does increase pluralised democratic output (for the better or for worse), such instances could indeed hinder inclusive community development, as can often become a platform for legitimising prejudices or community based structural violence[ma17][ma18][ma19]. more Finally, an additional practical limitation faced by Voice2People, is the problematic mode through which democratic participation is facilitated within its programmes. Ultimately, the Voice2People programme is externally facilitated by an NGO based CSO, unlike programmes led by traditionalist CSOs which arise out of indigenous community structures. This stems from a contradictive paradox of self-help, whereby external NGO based CSOs are deployed to facilitate empowerment in traditionalist settings (Page, 2014). The concern here is, that due to the nature of Voice2People as an external NGO directed programme, true participatory development is constrained as it foregoes the political conscientization necessary for true and sustainable empowerment. Evidently, by using NGO based CSOs as proxies for indigenous organisations[ma20], only artificial low intensity democracy can be achieved (Carmody). This artificial empowerment runs the risk of disintegrating once the NGO based CSO has withdr awn, and is therefore unsustainable and unable to exert continuous pressure for longstanding change. Since the timescale of the Voice2People programme had an end date of March 2016 (Christian Aid, 2016), one can suggest that due to the lack of endogenous indigenous programmes to guarantee democratic output, participatory development progress began to disintegrate after the withdrawal of Christian Aid. This suggests that the dichotomy theorised by Mamdani (1996;19), which bifurcates the normative perceptions of civil society and its actually existing form, is too simplistic to encapsulate the different issues faced by varying CSOs. Through homogenising the realities of all actually existing civil society, the dichotomy ignores the vastly different realities faced by NGO based CSOs in relation to indigenous organisations[ma21]. Conclusion Normative ideals as unattainable clear divergence to the reality fo actually existing civil society [ma1]democratic development paradigm (Banks, Edwards and Hulme; 2015, 710 [ma2]Since democracy is regarded as the requisite political system conducive to growth (Chan, 2002), [ma3]Make all this link a bit more [ma4]Something about beneficiary membership or something about closeness to them [ma5]This will become important later on [ma6]Link these two sections together better [ma7] [ma8]Make sure you notePD as requiring liberally moulded empowered citizen participation and a democratic and accountable state. [ma9]Describe theoretical as motivations beind and practical barriers and issues facing actual formation/methodology [ma10]Maybe link western concept here: universalism of normative ideal does not take into account the authoritarian big man state this suggests it is applicable to western experience only. Miaia Why are we pushing the concept it if has failed in the US (Carmoroff and Carmoroff) [ma11]Mandani state power is in the ability to incorporate [ma12]Conclude: how does this link to participatory development? How does this constrain V2P? [ma13] Moreover, it can also be argued that the envisioned concept of civil society is applicable only to the western experience and thus in reality, can achieve very little democratic or developmental progress elsewhere (Lewis, 2003). In this sense, donor support for CSOs is misguided, as the theoretical framework used to mould civil society in Eastern Europe after the fall of communism, has very little explanatory value for the complexities of African associational life such as the constraining power of tribe and caste (Maina). It also ignores the need of a democratic tradition to perpetuate democratic norms within civil society, as an earlier point states, the presence of CSOs such as Voice2People, does not necessarily equate to democracy. Additionally, the limited western definition of CSOs may lead to duplication of efforts to build civil society where an indigenous form already exists (Uggla). This dissonance of the legitimacy to alternatives to western defined CSOs limits true democr acy due to the monopolisation of the political sphere by one homogenous form of CSO (hearn, 2001). When the wrong kinds of CSO are excluded, how can participatory development occur? (Banks Edwards and Hulme). Actually existing civil society cannot therefore lead to full participatory development, as the attributes of civil society itself, are western and ungeneralizable to the Nigerian case. Link to V2P. conclude [ma14] [ma15]say this too much reword this so it isnt repetitive [ma16]needs to link more [ma17]need an example of V2P and how this is not participatory can prejudices lead to the deliberate exclusion of others in participation the need for monitors has reflected this [ma18]it is in this sense that White cites the possibility of CS impeding democracy by gives rise to a multiplicity of distinct structures of dominance and subordinacy [ma19]find example of this in CA policy doccs [ma20]I can only stress that throughà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [ma21]add example of this from CA policy docc

Strategies and Definitions of 3D Animation

Strategies and Definitions of 3D Animation 2.1 Definition of Animation 2.1.1 A Technical Definition of Animation Various definitions of animation exist that cover technical, physiological, through to philosophical aspects. In a technical sense, Myers (1999, [Online]) describes animation, the form that we have become familiar with, as a series of drawings that are linked together and photographed. The drawings have been slightly changed between individualized frames so when they are played back in rapid succession there appears to be seamless movement within the drawings'(Myers 1999, [Online]). Jonsson (1978, p. 2) also describes animation in a technical sense: A strip of movie film consists of still pictures called frames each one slightly different from the one preceding it. When the film is projected and run continuously these still pictures give an illusion of movement (Jonsson 1978, p. 2). Morrison (1994, p. 5) simply defines, animation as the illusion of movement: This illusion of movement can be achieved by quickly displaying a series of images that show slight incremental changes in one of the depicted objects. If you play back these images fast enough, the eye will perceive movement (Morrison 1994, p. 5). It is safe for one to conclude that animation and motion picture in general, when viewed by a human is an illusion, the rapid succession of ordered singular frames tricking the viewers eye into perceiving there is an apparent seamless movement. This technical definition of animation is closely linked to the history and evolution of motion picture, also to human physiology and how the eye and the brain perceive movement. 2.1.2 The Beginnings of the Motion Picture Animation cannot be achieved without first understanding a fundamental principle of the human eye: the persistence of vision'(James 2002, [Online]). Animation literature shows that the appreciation of this principle is not only linked with the history of animation and motion picture but much earlier, beginning long ago in our past. Since the beginnings of time, human beings have tried to capture a sense of motion in their art'(James 2002, [Online]). Williams (2001) points out several examples; a 35,000 year old pre-historic cave painting of a boar in Northern Spain displaying four pairs of legs to show motion'(Williams 2001, p. 11). Egyptian temple paintings of figures that progressively changed position'(Williams 2001, p. 12). Ancient Greek decorated pots with figures in successive stages of action. Spinning the pot would create a sense of motion'(Williams 2001, p. 12). Other examples are cave and wall paintings, medieval tapestries, scrolls, and paintings which all tell continuous storiesand some of which attempt to illustrate repetitive motions'(James 2002, [Online]). Theories that were born in the ancient world by classical scholars were to prove very important in the genesis of animation, as The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) points out. It identifies historical figures such as the Greek Aristotle (384-322 BC), who observed light and motion after effects, dating back to 340 BC (The Private Lessons Channel 2002, [Online]). The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) then points out that later, in 130 AD, Greek astronomer and geographer Ptolemy (100-178 AD) discovered the aforementioned persistence of vision. In elaborating a point made by Thomas (1964, p. 8), one can see how these ancient scholars came to such discoveries; Imagine a torch lighted with fire, being whisked around in a circular motion in the darkness, the eye seeing a continuous unbroken circle of light. This type of phenomenon must have been known to the ancients'(Thomas 1964, p. 8). 2.1.3 A Physiological Definition of Animation The Persistence of Vision While there is evidence of a fascination with the visual documentation of movement and narrative in prehistoric and classical periods, it was not until these notions were later revisited by 19th century inventors, that modern animation principles emerged. One of these inventors was the Frenchman Peter Mark Roget, also the author of the famous Rogets Thesaurus, who in the 1820s rediscovered the vital principle, the persistence of vision'(Williams 2001, p. 13). Williams (2001, p. 13) explains the persistence of vision on the following way: This principle rests on the fact that that our eyes temporarily retain the image of anything theyve just seen. If this wasnt so, we would never get the illusion of an unbroken connection in a series of images, and neither movies nor animation would be possible. Many people dont realise the movies dont actually move, and that they are still images that appear to move when they are projected in a series (Williams 2001, p. 13). Jonsson (1978, p. 2) gives a more physiologically oriented explanation: What makes this possible is a quality of our brain called persistence of vision that is; although the frame we are viewing at any given moment is in fact still, the image burns itself onto our retina, so that it remains with us for a small fraction of time while we view the next one and if the difference seems to be a reasonable follow-on, an illusion is created (Jonsson 1978, p. 2). Concluding that technical and physiological aspects work hand-in-hand in motion picture, Jonsson (1978, p. 2) explains that for the eye to record an apparent continuous seamless movement, a certain frequency of frames per second needs to be displayed. Morrison (1994, p. 5) states that human visual acuity is low enough that only 12-15 different pictures (or frames) need to be displayed per second to produce the illusion of movement. The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) states that the number of frames per second, or fps, directly correlates to how smooth the movement appears. If the frame rate is too slow, the motion will look awkward and jerky. If the frame rate is too high the motion will blur'(The Private Lessons Channel 2002, [Online]). For the eye to record a normal, continuous movement that is not too fast, and not too slow there needs to be a frequency of around 24 to 30 fps displayed by a projector. Jonsson (1978, p. 2), states that this is the sole principle by which both live-action and animated films work. 24 fps is used in cinema, 25 fps is used for PAL television (Europe and Australia), and 30 fps is used for NTSC television (America and Japan). In relation to the illusion of movement and persistence of vision, both Wells (1998 p. 10) and Furniss (1998 p. 5) portrays the view of well-known Scottish-born animation identity Norman McClaren: Animation is not the art of drawings that move, but rather the art of movements that are drawn. What happens between each frame is more important than what happens on each frame; Animation is therefore the art of manipulating the invisible interstices that lie between the frames (McClaren qtd. in Furniss 1998 p. 5). James (2002, [Online]) states that Roget demonstrated the persistence of vision principle in his invention, the thaumatrope. James (2002, [Online]) and Williams (2001, p. 13), describe it as a disc held between two pieces of string, which was attached to both of the disc edges. Each flat side of the disc had different images; one a bird, the other an empty birdcage. Twirling of the disc with the pulling of the string results in the bird appearing to be in the cage. This proved that the eye retains images when it is exposed to a series of pictures, one at a time'(James 2002, [Online]). The Private Lessons Channel (2002, [Online]) notes that two other inventors are credited with this invention, the Frenchman Dr. John Ayrton, and Englishman Dr. Fitton, depending on the source. 2.1.4 The Early Evolution of the Motion Picture Crucial to the evolution of Animation and indeed Motion Picture were other related inventions. James (2002, [Online]) describes other optical devices of a similar nature to the thaumatrope, such as the phenakistoscopeinvented in 1826 by Joseph Plateau, and the zoetropeinvented in 1860 by Pierre Desvignes. Williams (2001, p. 14) mentions another similar invention, the praxinoscope, invented by the Frenchman Emile Reynaud in 1877. Clark (1979, p. 8) states that these contraptions relied for their effect on either an endless paper band or a cardboard disc bearing series of pictures drawn in progressive stages of an action. Viewed intermittently through slots or reflected in mirrors the drawings came to life and appeared to move'(Clark 1979, p. 8). Another invention included the flipbook, or kineograph pad, first appearing in 1868. Another important invention relevant to Motion Picture was photography. The first photographs were taken in the late 1820s by a Frenchman, Nicà ©phore Nià ©pce'(Thomas 1964, p. 6). In the 1870s Sir Charles Wheatstones moving picture stereoviewerwas created to view a series of actual photographs in ordered succession (Thomas 1964, p. 16). Thomas (1964, p. 18) points out that the first to capture and record a sequence of images, was the English/American Eadweard J. Muybridge, where he famously captured a horse and carriage trotting. He then played the captured images back in a viewing device, known as the zoopraxiscope. Another important revolution in the evolution of the Motion Picture was that of nitrate celluloid film invented by H.W. Goodwin in 1887. Nitrate celluloid film was a chemical combination of gun cotton and gum camphor'(McLaughlin 2001, [Online]). Thomas (1964, p. 29) acknowledges the birth of Cinema to the famous American inventor Thomas A. Edison, and the Scot William Kennedy Laurie Dickson. In 1892 Edison and Dickson succeeded in building a camera capable of taking moving pictures at a rate of forty-six per second on Eastman celluloid film'(Thomas 1964, p. 29). Edisons and Dicksons viewing device, influenced by Austrian Ottomar Anschà ¼tz, was named the kinetoscope. Thomas (1964, p. 29) describes it as a viewing cabinet by means of which only one person could view a film at a time. As the images were not projected, the viewer had to use a small eyepiece to look into the cabinet in order to see the moving images. Instigated and influenced by the work Edison and Dickson, other inventors set about evolving the kinetoscoperesulting in viewing devices with the ability to project images. The most well-known of these inventors were the Lumià ¨re brothers, who in 1895 designed a camera and projector which they call the cinà ©matographe'(Thomas 1964, p. 30). The Lumià ¨re brothers became the first to give a public exhibition of moving pictures'(Thomas 1964, p. 30), which they held on the 28th of December 1895, at the Grand Cafà © in Paris. It is interesting to note that Estonian animator Priit Pà ¤rn in his surrealist-inspired short film 1895, pays tribute to the Lumià ¨re brothers, and invention of the cinà ©matographe. Thomas (1964, p. 31), concludes that the interest shown by the public in these first cinema shows gave rise to a rapid growth in a new industry. In time, with the advent and advancement of various technologies and techniques, the first true animated films were born. 2.1.5 A Philosophical Definition and Discussion of Animation Animation is the art of bringing something to life. How its brought to life can be done any number of different ways, simply states Ludwin (1998, [Online]). Bringing something to life is indeed a very important theme in animation. To better understand the definition of animation, it is useful to find out the original term from which the word animation derives. Wells (1998, p. 10) notes that animation derives from the latin word animare, which means to give life to, and that the animated film largely means the artificial creation of the illusion of movement in inanimate lines and forms. The famous Zagreb School of Croatia relates the definition of to animate back to this original meaning. They suggest, that to animate is to give life and soul to a design, not through the copying but through the transformation of reality(Wells 1998, p. 10). When youre animating and moving an object, youre instilling life in something'(Lubin 2003). This leads us onto animators philosophies, ideologies and animation aesthetics. There are many differences in philosophy among animators and opinion of what the essence of animation actually is. One interesting example illustrating the philosophical differences of opinion is with respect to the extent of which animation should reflect real-life. For instance, the copying of real-life movements using motion capture techniques, are not favoured by all animators. Stefan Marjoram of the Aardman studio notes that motion capture is alright in sports games, but it doesnt necessarily make you a good animator. Animations not about copying real life, after all a lot of people use motion capture for that. For me animation is about exaggerating real life'(Ricketts 2002, p. 51). Lubin (2003) agrees: Thats absolutely right. I mean if youre doing a game and you want to get Tiger Woodsswing, fine. But Motion Capture which is only about animating humanoid animation, why bother? Just get real actors (Lubin 2003). When asked the question on what the public perception of Animation is, Tom Lubin in an interview on 1 April 2003 stated that it depends on who you askand it depends on the show. Some animation would be dismissed as stuff for something to baby-sitlittle kids with, whilst other animation has a broader market encompassing all age groups. I think the public has a very broad view of it depending on their interests'(Lubin 2003). Lubin (2003) also pointed out that animation has been successful for a really long time, and he stated that it was telling that the Academy Awards now, in the last few years, actually gives an Oscar for the best feature in animation. This has to do with the publics perception of animation as a viable stand alone'(Lubin 2003). Animation at its most creative, is a truly beautiful artform'(White 1988, p. 9). The term art and its related words feature heavily in many animation definitions and philosophies originating from the birth of modern animation. Winsor McCay the first American animator of the early 1900s, who many have dubbed the father of the animated cartoon, once stated: Animation should be an artwhat you fellows have done with it is making it into a tradenot an art, but a tradebad luck (Crandol 1999, [Online]). Crandol (1999, [Online]) points out that McCays warning and prediction inevitably became true. Indeed a studio production system with a streamlined, assembly-line processwas formed out of the necessity to satisfy time, expense and demand factors (Crandol 1999, [Online]). Wells (1998) also mentions several times that the domination and the proliferation of mass-produced cel animation'(p. 35), such as that produced in America and Japan, has led to animation being understood in a limited wayby society (p. 24). Wells (1998, p. 35) elaborates stating that: The amount of cheaply produced, highly industrialised cel animation made in the USA and Japan had colonised television schedules, and perhaps, more importantly, the imaginations of viewers (Wells 1998, p. 35). Crandol (1999, [Online]) also points out that the collective nature of the studio may prevent the artists from receiving the amount of praise an artist working solo garners. Wells (1998, p. 7) makes the point that this type of animation has somewhat diminished animation in the eyes of society as a legitimate artform: Animation has been trivialised and ignored despite its radical tendencies and self-evident artistic achievements at the technical and aesthetic level. Ironically, the dominance of the cartoon(i.e. traditional celanimation in the style of Disney or Warner Brothers, which is predicated on painting forms and figures directly onto sheets of celluloid which are then photographed) has unfortunately misrepresented and the animated film because it art seems invisible or, more precisely, is taken for granted by its viewers. The cartoon seems part of an easily dismissed popular culture; animation, as a term, at least carries with it an aspiration for recognition as an art and, indeed the popular evaluation of other animated forms (Wells 1998, p. 7). Although there appears to be a domination of the of American and Japanese style of animation and its entertainment premise as suggested, affecting the common perception of animation, large difference in styles and approaches have occurred and do exist. In an interview with an animation Domain Expert on 1 May 2003, he made the point that European animation, due to the many various nations and peoples, have contributed a large number of diverse artistic visual styles, contrasting to the American or Japanese styles. He also stated that many animated works are not always of the purely entertainment premise. One example he stated was in the communist period of Eastern Europe where animation was state controlled, focusing on allegorical social comment, the animators slipping in their own secret messages in the films past the censors. Even with the domination of industrialised mass-produced animation, and the influences it has on the audience, Crandol (1999, [Online]) remarks that there have been many animators careful not to let business logistics overwhelm the artistic potential of the medium. Crandol (1999, [Online]) concludes that as long as are creative people working, animation will continue to be the best of both worlds: a trade and an art. Tom Lubin, Head of Training at FTI (Film Television Institute), in an interview on 1 April 2003, in response to the question of animation being an art responded I think it is. Well you need art skills to do it. But actually that not as important to me as storytelling. What animation is, is storytelling. Storytelling and its importance to Animation will be specifically discussed and investigated in Chapter 3: The Principles of Storytelling. To give life towas a major inspirational theme in the animation process I went through, so to was the art of animation, as I have personally and purposefully embraced it when conducting the creative animation process. This will be touched upon in part 2 of the dissertation; The Self-Reflective Case Study. 2.2 The Animation Process The Angus Robertson Dictionary and Thesaurus (1992, p. 788) defines the word process as a series of actions which produce a change or development, and a method of doing or producing something. From these meanings the animation process can be described as what I am researching and undertaking in my Honours project; the pattern of methods an animator undertakes from start to finish in the creation of an animated work, or animation. Animation and the animation process, like many other disciplines, have undergone a paradigm shift due to technological advancements. Indeed technology has been the catalyst for many paradigm shifts as Utz (1993, p. 16) points out. Due to the ever-increasing accessibility and affordability of various technologies, an animators methods, actions and options have changed when implementing the animation process. See Appendix 2: Paradigm Shift in the Animation Process, for a more detailed discussion of this subject. Referring to these changes in the animation process, animator George Griffin believes the role of the animator in an artistic sense has changed very little: Despite the enormous upheavals in technology, the independent animators artistic role remains essentially the same: to draw time, to construct a model of ideas and emotions, using any means available (Griffin qtd. in Laybourne 1998, p. xi). 2.3 Types of Animation For a description of the various types of animation such as traditional 2D animation, stop-motion animation and computer generated 3D animation, please refer to Appendix 2: Paradigm Shift in the Animation Process. 2.4 Conclusion Through investigating the various definitions of animation it can be seen that they cover and include many different aspects. The technical definition of animation is closely linked to the history and evolution of motion picture, and this is turn is linked to the understanding of human physiology and how the eye and the brain perceive movement. The different philosophical definitions and viewpoints animators hold also cover many different aspects, varying immensely. This chapter directly relates to the practical component of the Honours project, as described in part 2 of the dissertation; The Self-Reflective Case Study. This is due to the fact that when creating the 3D animated pilot and series concept, I related to and strongly agreed with various animation philosophies that were discussed in this chapter e.g. to give life to, as mentioned beforehand. On some occasions these philosophies affected and influenced the way that I would conduct my own practical animation process. A brief investigation on societys perception of animation subject matter was also relevant for the target audience of the series concept.

Underground Railroad :: Slavery

The Underground Railroad is famous for the things it has done, but most people don't understand or fully know what it was really about. First of all, it has nothing to do with an underground train or railroad as it may seem. The term "Underground Railroad" actually has different stories for its inception. One of these stories was of Tice Davis, a runaway slave in 1831. While running away from his owner he dove into a creek and was out of the owner's sight. His owner said "he must have gone off on an underground railroad." (http://www.whispersofangels.com/opposing.html) Although highly unbelievable, it can be found quite amusing. The logical explanation, though, is that the word "underground" is a term for secretive, while "railroad" represents the working together of people like train cars to "ship" the slaves. The main reason for the Underground Railroad was the effort to abolish slavery. None of the other efforts were contributing as much, and it was definitely our country's first major anti-slavery movement. America had hit its peak in the sense of slavery. We were thriving off of black laborers and our population continued to grow with contributions from the triangular trade. The triangular trade route was a trade route between the British West Indies, Europe, Africa and America. (http://members.tripod.com/lylesj/trade/tritrade.html) The profit slaves had brought in was tremendous contrasted to the profit of hired work. It became a major bonus to land and plantation owners. The black slaves were also great workers because of their ethnic backgrounds. They had great work ethics, dark skin to work in heat, and were much stronger than the hired men. Slaves longed to be free for more than one reason. Some just would love to be able to go where they want and say what they want without persecution. Who wouldn't want to be able to have this? Other slaves ran from owners out of fear. They wanted to keep their families together and not be sold away from them. There were also slaves that were treated very poorly. In fact, they were treated so poorly that if the didn't run they might not live much longer. Slaves have wanted to escape their slavery as far back as the first colonies had begun. The only truly free people were the whites, and blacks wanted to end that situation for good. The northern states/colonies had a more industrial area and immigrants easily took the jobs that were available.

The Role of Institutions in the Economic Development of Mexico Essay

The Role of Institutions in the Economic Development of Mexico Introduction The purpose of this paper is to focus upon the institutional development of the country of Mexico. The paper begins with an overview of the establishment of Mexico as a country and move into the various forms of government institutions that were put into place to govern the nation. The following section is a look at the nation’s attempt to establish a democratic form of government and how the state emerged as the center of authority. The final two sections of the paper examine the development of the private and the public sectors during the middle of the twentieth century and conclude with the repercussions of policies geared towards a state centered form of government. Early History of Development (1810-1916) Before examining the institutional development of Mexico as a country, it is important to understand first and foremost the transitions of government which have evolved over earlier political struggles. Beginning in 1810, the Mexican people engaged in the War of Independence against the Spanish Crown, which had dominated for nearly three decades. The colonial economy, which at that time could be characterized as mainly agrarian and mineral exporting, provided the majority of wealth to the Spanish Crown through the mining of precious metals such as silver and gold. The war persisted for a period of 11 years (1810-1821). In 1824 the Mexican National Government was recognized. Although Mexico had won independence, the next fifty years was a period of massive internal struggle. Fifty different governments were led by thirty different presidents of whom only three served full terms. There were also three short wars, two against Fra... ...pared to compete in the world markets. As of 1996, the Mexican economy has appeared to stabilize and growth for 1997 is estimated at 7.5 percent. With the help of the international community and future trade liberalization agreements, it is expected that Mexico will eventually reach sustained economic growth. Works Cited Haber, Stephen, ed. How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1997. Hansen, Rodger, D. "Mexican Economic Development: The Roots of Growth." No. 2. Washington: National Planning Association, 1971. Long, Robert, E. ed., Mexico. New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1986. Lustig, Nora. Mexico: The Remaking of an Economy. 2nd edition. Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1998. Vernon, Raymon. The Dilemma of Mexico’s Development. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1963. The Role of Institutions in the Economic Development of Mexico Essay The Role of Institutions in the Economic Development of Mexico Introduction The purpose of this paper is to focus upon the institutional development of the country of Mexico. The paper begins with an overview of the establishment of Mexico as a country and move into the various forms of government institutions that were put into place to govern the nation. The following section is a look at the nation’s attempt to establish a democratic form of government and how the state emerged as the center of authority. The final two sections of the paper examine the development of the private and the public sectors during the middle of the twentieth century and conclude with the repercussions of policies geared towards a state centered form of government. Early History of Development (1810-1916) Before examining the institutional development of Mexico as a country, it is important to understand first and foremost the transitions of government which have evolved over earlier political struggles. Beginning in 1810, the Mexican people engaged in the War of Independence against the Spanish Crown, which had dominated for nearly three decades. The colonial economy, which at that time could be characterized as mainly agrarian and mineral exporting, provided the majority of wealth to the Spanish Crown through the mining of precious metals such as silver and gold. The war persisted for a period of 11 years (1810-1821). In 1824 the Mexican National Government was recognized. Although Mexico had won independence, the next fifty years was a period of massive internal struggle. Fifty different governments were led by thirty different presidents of whom only three served full terms. There were also three short wars, two against Fra... ...pared to compete in the world markets. As of 1996, the Mexican economy has appeared to stabilize and growth for 1997 is estimated at 7.5 percent. With the help of the international community and future trade liberalization agreements, it is expected that Mexico will eventually reach sustained economic growth. Works Cited Haber, Stephen, ed. How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1997. Hansen, Rodger, D. "Mexican Economic Development: The Roots of Growth." No. 2. Washington: National Planning Association, 1971. Long, Robert, E. ed., Mexico. New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1986. Lustig, Nora. Mexico: The Remaking of an Economy. 2nd edition. Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1998. Vernon, Raymon. The Dilemma of Mexico’s Development. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1963.

Irresistible Lab Report Chem 109

Abstract A buffer is a solution that resists changes in pH when H+, OH-, or H20 is added. By using standard lab equipment, a lab pro diagnostic tool, and acidic and basic solutions, the pH can be found. By recording the pH while adding a base or an acid gradually to a buffer solution you can find the capacity of each buffer to resist drastic changes in pH. The best buffers will keep a solution from becoming either too acidic or basic with the addition of a strong base or acid. IntroductionThe objective of the Irresistible lab is to determine the capacity of each solution (unbuffered and buffered both) and how much they resist changes to pH. This is accomplished by having ten graduated beakers: two containing pure water, two with . 1 M Sodium Chloride, two with 1 gram of solid sodium acetate dissolved in acetic acid, two with 5 grams of solid sodium acetate dissolved in acetic acid, and two with 10 grams of solid sodium acetate dissolved in acetic acid. These are split into two groups of five containing one of each solution.The pH of each solution is then measured and a pipette is used to distribute 1 mL of HCl, a strong acid, at a time to each solution in the first set, with the pH being measured and recorded until a drastic change is recorded. The procedure will be repeated with the other set of solutions using NaOH, a strong base. I would predict that the pure water and sodium chloride solutions would not have a very strong buffering capacity and therefore would almost immediately drop or raise the pH level depending on whether a base or acid was added.As far as the mixture of sodium acetate and acetic acid, I would predict that they would be a better buffer than the previous solutions. There are varying amounts of sodium acetate, but I don’t predict that they will have much different results as far as buffering solutions goes. This is because they all have the same amount of acetic acid, which will act as the main buffer. I predict that this will be t he limiting reagent out of those solutions. Method I began by preparing ten beakers, labled 1-10 and added 50 mL of water to numbers 1 and 6. In 2 and 7 I added 50 mL of . 1 M NaCl.I added sodium acetate to the rest of the beakers: 1 gram to 3 and 8, 5 grams to 4 and 9, and 10 grams to 5 and 10. I then filled the beakers that contained the solid sodium acetate with 50 ml of . 10 M acetic acid. Specifics can be found on page 84 of the lab manual. Though the lab manual instructed to use a pipet, we did not have an accurate 1 mL pipet or a graduated pipet, so we instead prepared two graduated burets with 1 M Sodium Hydroxide and 1 M hydrochloric acid. Using a standardized pH probe with a Lab Pro to measure changes in pH, we added 1 mL of HCl at a time and recorded the changes.The same was done for the NaOH. Results We only added a small amount of HCl to the water and sodium chloride. We did not continue to add more HCl after a significant drop in pH was recorded. We added a total of 2 mL of HCl to both H20 and NaCl before the pH changed. The 1 gram solution of sodium acetate and acetic acid changed after a 8 mL, and the other two never dropped before we reached our total of 10 mL HCl. The Effect of Acidon Solutions 50 ml H2050 mL . 1 M NaCl1 g CH3COONa5 g CH3COONa10 g CH3COONa TrialpH 07. 516. 374. 745. 75. 97 11. 591. 384. 545. 455. 88 21. 121. 184. 375. 355. 75 3 4. 185. 245. 68 4 3. 985. 155. 59 5 3. 765. 075. 51 6 3. 455. 015. 46 7 2. 984. 935. 41 8 1. 634. 865. 34 9 4. 815. 31 10 4. 775. 26 We repeated the procedure with the second set of solutions, but replaced hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide. Like the last set, both sodium chloride and water changed pH almost instantly. It took one mL to reach a significant rise in pH. The other three solutions all took a total of 4 mL to rise to a pH of a little over 13. 6. The Effect of Base on Solutions Trial50 ml H2050 mL . 1 M NaCl1 g CH3COONa5 g CH3COONa10 g CH3COONa 06. 777. 34. 845. 6255. 934 112. 9913. 135 5. 7836. 164 2 5. 366. 1456. 444 3 6. 267. 9557. 53 4 13. 0613. 1413. 14 5 Discussion The point of this lab was to determine the capacity of each solution as a buffer. By adding a strong acid to the solution we were essentially measuring the amount of hydrogen atoms that could be absorbed by the solution (buffered) before the limit was reached and they were abundant in the solution (pH).The same was measured by lack of the hydrogen atoms and abundance of hydroxide ions in solution when the base was added. As seen in the graph above, water has little to no buffering capacity. Because it contains a hydrogen and hydroxide ion, it should have some buffering capabilities, but I suspect that the fact that the acid was strong quickly overcame the capacity. Similar results with the sodium chloride show that it’s buffering capacity is not good. The 1 gram of sodium acetate reached its capacity at 8 mL of HCl, and the other two never dropped off.This shows that they were continuing to buffer past the 10 mL of HCl. The graph above shows the same solutions with the addition of Sodium Hydroxide. Once again water and NaCl do not buffer well and at 4 mL of NaOH all three sodium acetate solutions reached capacity. In a lab like this, errors are very likely. There is the absence of ionized water, for one, to consider. This could easily skew results because the water could be contaminated. Unfortunately the equipment is old and could be faulty. And also those doing the experiment could have bad techniques because we are so new at this.The lab was also open, and the contaminates could easily mess up the results. If I were to do this lab again, I would do more with the varying concentrations of sodium acetate to acetic acid solutions. Obviously they were the best buffers, but I would test different ratios and concentrations along with different volumes of acetic acid. With more experimentation, conclusions could be more easily drawn between the relationship of these two. C onclusion Buffers are very important in all aspects of life. In the body they keep the blood from becoming too acidic or basic, for example.I’ve learned that not all solutions make good buffers, water for example, did not stand up to the strength of the sodium hydroxide or hydrochloric acid. In conclusion: without buffers, our whole world would be acidic and basic, no neutrals around. References Kautz, J. , D. Kinnan, and C. McLaughlin. 2011-2012. Chemistry 110 Laboratory Manual â€Å"Taking things apart†¦ Putting things together†. Plymouth, MI: Hayden-McNeil Publishing. Gilbert, T. R. , R. V. Kriss, N. Foster, G. Davies. 2004. Chemistry The Science In Context. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company

Angels Demons Chapter 58-61

58 â€Å"Seven-forty-six and thirty†¦ mark.† Even speaking into his walkie-talkie, Olivetti's voice never seemed to rise above a whisper. Langdon felt himself sweating now in his Harris tweed in the backseat of the Alpha Romeo, which was idling in Piazza de la Concorde, three blocks from the Pantheon. Vittoria sat beside him, looking engrossed by Olivetti, who was transmitting his final orders. â€Å"Deployment will be an eight-point hem,† the commander said. â€Å"Full perimeter with a bias on the entry. Target may know you visually, so you will be pas-visible. Nonmortal force only. We'll need someone to spot the roof. Target is primary. Asset secondary.† Jesus, Langdon thought, chilled by the efficiency with which Olivetti had just told his men the cardinal was expendable. Asset secondary. â€Å"I repeat. Nonmortal procurement. We need the target alive. Go.† Olivetti snapped off his walkie-talkie. Vittoria looked stunned, almost angry. â€Å"Commander, isn't anyone going inside?† Olivetti turned. â€Å"Inside?† â€Å"Inside the Pantheon! Where this is supposed to happen?† â€Å"Attento,† Olivetti said, his eyes fossilizing. â€Å"If my ranks have been infiltrated, my men may be known by sight. Your colleague has just finished warning me that this will be our sole chance to catch the target. I have no intention of scaring anyone off by marching my men inside.† â€Å"But what if the killer is already inside?† Olivetti checked his watch. â€Å"The target was specific. Eight o'clock. We have fifteen minutes.† â€Å"He said he would kill the cardinal at eight o'clock. But he may already have gotten the victim inside somehow. What if your men see the target come out but don't know who he is? Someone needs to make sure the inside is clean.† â€Å"Too risky at this point.† â€Å"Not if the person going in was unrecognizable.† â€Å"Disguising operatives is time consuming and – â€Å" â€Å"I meant me,† Vittoria said. Langdon turned and stared at her. Olivetti shook his head. â€Å"Absolutely not.† â€Å"He killed my father.† â€Å"Exactly, so he may know who you are.† â€Å"You heard him on the phone. He had no idea Leonardo Vetra even had a daughter. He sure as hell doesn't know what I look like. I could walk in like a tourist. If I see anything suspicious, I could walk into the square and signal your men to move in.† â€Å"I'm sorry, I cannot allow that.† â€Å"Comandante?† Olivetti's receiver crackled. â€Å"We've got a situation from the north point. The fountain is blocking our line of sight. We can't see the entrance unless we move into plain view on the piazza. What's your call? Do you want us blind or vulnerable?† Vittoria apparently had endured enough. â€Å"That's it. I'm going.† She opened her door and got out. Olivetti dropped his walkie-talkie and jumped out of the car, circling in front of Vittoria. Langdon got out too. What the hell is she doing! Olivetti blocked Vittoria's way. â€Å"Ms. Vetra, your instincts are good, but I cannot let a civilian interfere.† â€Å"Interfere? You're flying blind. Let me help.† â€Å"I would love to have a recon point inside, but†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"But what?† Vittoria demanded. â€Å"But I'm a woman?† Olivetti said nothing. â€Å"That had better not be what you were going to say, Commander, because you know damn well this is a good idea, and if you let some archaic macho bullshit – â€Å" â€Å"Let us do our job.† â€Å"Let me help.† â€Å"Too dangerous. We would have no lines of communication with you. I can't let you carry a walkie-talkie, it would give you away.† Vittoria reached in her shirt pocket and produced her cell phone. â€Å"Plenty of tourists carry phones.† Olivetti frowned. Vittoria unsnapped the phone and mimicked a call. â€Å"Hi, honey, I'm standing in the Pantheon. You should see this place!† She snapped the phone shut and glared at Olivetti. â€Å"Who the hell is going to know? It is a no-risk situation. Let me be your eyes!† She motioned to the cell phone on Olivetti's belt. â€Å"What's your number?† Olivetti did not reply. The driver had been looking on and seemed to have some thoughts of his own. He got out of the car and took the commander aside. They spoke in hushed tones for ten seconds. Finally Olivetti nodded and returned. â€Å"Program this number.† He began dictating digits. Vittoria programmed her phone. â€Å"Now call the number.† Vittoria pressed the auto dial. The phone on Olivetti's belt began ringing. He picked it up and spoke into the receiver. â€Å"Go into the building, Ms. Vetra, look around, exit the building, then call and tell me what you see.† Vittoria snapped the phone shut. â€Å"Thank you, sir.† Langdon felt a sudden, unexpected surge of protective instinct. â€Å"Wait a minute,† he said to Olivetti. â€Å"You're sending her in there alone.† Vittoria scowled at him. â€Å"Robert, I'll be fine.† The Swiss Guard driver was talking to Olivetti again. â€Å"It's dangerous,† Langdon said to Vittoria. â€Å"He's right,† Olivetti said. â€Å"Even my best men don't work alone. My lieutenant has just pointed out that the masquerade will be more convincing with both of you anyway.† Both of us? Langdon hesitated. Actually, what I meant – â€Å"Both of you entering together,† Olivetti said, â€Å"will look like a couple on holiday. You can also back each other up. I'm more comfortable with that.† Vittoria shrugged. â€Å"Fine, but we'll need to go fast.† Langdon groaned. Nice move, cowboy. Olivetti pointed down the street. â€Å"First street you hit will be Via degli Orfani. Go left. It takes you directly to the Pantheon. Two-minute walk, tops. I'll be here, directing my men and waiting for your call. I'd like you to have protection.† He pulled out his pistol. â€Å"Do either of you know how to use a gun?† Langdon's heart skipped. We don't need a gun! Vittoria held her hand out. â€Å"I can tag a breaching porpoise from forty meters off the bow of a rocking ship.† â€Å"Good.† Olivetti handed the gun to her. â€Å"You'll have to conceal it.† Vittoria glanced down at her shorts. Then she looked at Langdon. Oh no you don't! Langdon thought, but Vittoria was too fast. She opened his jacket, and inserted the weapon into one of his breast pockets. It felt like a rock dropping into his coat, his only consolation being that Diagramma was in the other pocket. â€Å"We look harmless,† Vittoria said. â€Å"We're leaving.† She took Langdon's arm and headed down the street. The driver called out, â€Å"Arm in arm is good. Remember, you're tourists. Newlyweds even. Perhaps if you held hands?† As they turned the corner Langdon could have sworn he saw on Vittoria's face the hint of a smile. 59 The Swiss Guard â€Å"staging room† is located adjacent to the Corpo di Vigilanza barracks and is used primarily for planning the security surrounding papal appearances and public Vatican events. Today, however, it was being used for something else. The man addressing the assembled task force was the second-in-command of the Swiss Guard, Captain Elias Rocher. Rocher was a barrel-chested man with soft, puttylike features. He wore the traditional blue captain's uniform with his own personal flair – a red beret cocked sideways on his head. His voice was surprisingly crystalline for such a large man, and when he spoke, his tone had the clarity of a musical instrument. Despite the precision of his inflection, Rocher's eyes were cloudy like those of some nocturnal mammal. His men called him â€Å"orso† – grizzly bear. They sometimes joked that Rocher was â€Å"the bear who walked in the viper's shadow.† Commander Olivetti was the viper. Rocher was just as deadly as the viper, but at least you could see him coming. Rocher's men stood at sharp attention, nobody moving a muscle, although the information they had just received had increased their aggregate blood pressure by a few thousand points. Rookie Lieutenant Chartrand stood in the back of the room wishing he had been among the 99 percent of applicants who had not qualified to be here. At twenty years old, Chartrand was the youngest guard on the force. He had been in Vatican City only three months. Like every man there, Chartrand was Swiss Army trained and had endured two years of additional ausbilding in Bern before qualifying for the grueling Vatican prva held in a secret barracks outside of Rome. Nothing in his training, however, had prepared him for a crisis like this. At first Chartrand thought the briefing was some sort of bizarre training exercise. Futuristic weapons? Ancient cults? Kidnapped cardinals? Then Rocher had shown them the live video feed of the weapon in question. Apparently this was no exercise. â€Å"We will be killing power in selected areas,† Rocher was saying, â€Å"to eradicate extraneous magnetic interference. We will move in teams of four. We will wear infrared goggles for vision. Reconnaissance will be done with traditional bug sweepers, recalibrated for sub-three-ohm flux fields. Any questions?† None. Chartrand's mind was on overload. â€Å"What if we don't find it in time?† he asked, immediately wishing he had not. The grizzly bear gazed out at him from beneath his red beret. Then he dismissed the group with a somber salute. â€Å"Godspeed, men.† 60 Two blocks from the Pantheon, Langdon and Vittoria approached on foot past a line of taxis, their drivers sleeping in the front seats. Nap time was eternal in the Eternal City – the ubiquitous public dozing a perfected extension of the afternoon siestas born of ancient Spain. Langdon fought to focus his thoughts, but the situation was too bizarre to grasp rationally. Six hours ago he had been sound asleep in Cambridge. Now he was in Europe, caught up in a surreal battle of ancient titans, packing a semiautomatic in his Harris tweed, and holding hands with a woman he had only just met. He looked at Vittoria. She was focused straight ahead. There was a strength in her grasp – that of an independent and determined woman. Her fingers wrapped around his with the comfort of innate acceptance. No hesitation. Langdon felt a growing attraction. Get real, he told himself. Vittoria seemed to sense his uneasiness. â€Å"Relax,† she said, without turning her head. â€Å"We're supposed to look like newlyweds.† â€Å"I'm relaxed.† â€Å"You're crushing my hand.† Langdon flushed and loosened up. â€Å"Breathe through your eyes,† she said. â€Å"I'm sorry?† â€Å"It relaxes the muscles. It's called pranayama.† â€Å"Piranha?† â€Å"Not the fish. Pranayama. Never mind.† As they rounded the corner into Piazza della Rotunda, the Pantheon rose before them. Langdon admired it, as always, with awe. The Pantheon. Temple to all gods. Pagan gods. Gods of Nature and Earth. The structure seemed boxier from the outside than he remembered. The vertical pillars and triangular pronaus all but obscured the circular dome behind it. Still, the bold and immodest inscription over the entrance assured him they were in the right spot. M AGRIPPA L F COS TERTIUM FECIT. Langdon translated it, as always, with amusement. Marcus Agrippa, Consul for the third time, built this. So much for humility, he thought, turning his eyes to the surrounding area. A scattering of tourists with video cameras wandered the area. Others sat enjoying Rome's best iced coffee at La Tazza di Oro's outdoor cafe. Outside the entrance to the Pantheon, four armed Roman policemen stood at attention just as Olivetti had predicted. â€Å"Looks pretty quiet,† Vittoria said. Langdon nodded, but he felt troubled. Now that he was standing here in person, the whole scenario seemed surreal. Despite Vittoria's apparent faith that he was right, Langdon realized he had put everyone on the line here. The Illuminati poem lingered. From Santi's earthly tomb with demon's hole. YES, he told himself. This was the spot. Santi's tomb. He had been here many times beneath the Pantheon's oculus and stood before the grave of the great Raphael. â€Å"What time is it?† Vittoria asked. Langdon checked his watch. â€Å"Seven-fifty. Ten minutes till show time.† â€Å"Hope these guys are good,† Vittoria said, eyeing the scattered tourists entering the Pantheon. â€Å"If anything happens inside that dome, we'll all be in the crossfire.† Langdon exhaled heavily as they moved toward the entrance. The gun felt heavy in his pocket. He wondered what would happen if the policemen frisked him and found the weapon, but the officers did not give them a second look. Apparently the disguise was convincing. Langdon whispered to Vittoria. â€Å"Ever fire anything other than a tranquilizer gun?† â€Å"Don't you trust me?† â€Å"Trust you? I barely know you.† Vittoria frowned. â€Å"And here I thought we were newlyweds.† 61 The air inside the Pantheon was cool and damp, heavy with history. The sprawling ceiling hovered overhead as though weightless – the 141-foot unsupported span larger even than the cupola at St. Peter's. As always, Langdon felt a chill as he entered the cavernous room. It was a remarkable fusion of engineering and art. Above them the famous circular hole in the roof glowed with a narrow shaft of evening sun. The oculus, Langdon thought. The demon's hole. They had arrived. Langdon's eyes traced the arch of the ceiling sloping outward to the columned walls and finally down to the polished marble floor beneath their feet. The faint echo of footfalls and tourist murmurs reverberated around the dome. Langdon scanned the dozen or so tourists wandering aimlessly in the shadows. Are you here? â€Å"Looks pretty quiet,† Vittoria said, still holding his hand. Langdon nodded. â€Å"Where's Raphael's tomb?† Langdon thought for a moment, trying to get his bearings. He surveyed the circumference of the room. Tombs. Altars. Pillars. Niches. He motioned to a particularly ornate funerary across the dome and to the left. â€Å"I think that's Raphael's over there.† Vittoria scanned the rest of the room. â€Å"I don't see anyone who looks like an assassin about to kill a cardinal. Shall we look around?† Langdon nodded. â€Å"There's only one spot in here where anyone could be hiding. We better check the rientranze.† â€Å"The recesses?† â€Å"Yes.† Langdon pointed. â€Å"The recesses in the wall.† Around the perimeter, interspersed with the tombs, a series of semicircular niches were hewn in the wall. The niches, although not enormous, were big enough to hide someone in the shadows. Sadly, Langdon knew they once contained statues of the Olympian gods, but the pagan sculptures had been destroyed when the Vatican converted the Pantheon to a Christian church. He felt a pang of frustration to know he was standing at the first altar of science, and the marker was gone. He wondered which statue it had been, and where it had pointed. Langdon could imagine no greater thrill than finding an Illuminati marker – a statue that surreptitiously pointed the way down the Path of Illumination. Again he wondered who the anonymous Illuminati sculptor had been. â€Å"I'll take the left arc,† Vittoria said, indicating the left half of the circumference. â€Å"You go right. See you in a hundred and eighty degrees.† Langdon smiled grimly. As Vittoria moved off, Langdon felt the eerie horror of the situation seeping back into his mind. As he turned and made his way to the right, the killer's voice seemed to whisper in the dead space around him. Eight o'clock. Virgin sacrifices on the altars of science. A mathematical progression of death. Eight, nine, ten, eleven†¦ and at midnight. Langdon checked his watch: 7:52. Eight minutes. As Langdon moved toward the first recess, he passed the tomb of one of Italy's Catholic kings. The sarcophagus, like many in Rome, was askew with the wall, positioned awkwardly. A group of visitors seemed confused by this. Langdon did not stop to explain. Formal Christian tombs were often misaligned with the architecture so they could lie facing east. It was an ancient superstition that Langdon's Symbology 212 class had discussed just last month. â€Å"That's totally incongruous!† a female student in the front had blurted when Langdon explained the reason for east-facing tombs. â€Å"Why would Christians want their tombs to face the rising sun? We're talking about Christianity†¦ not sun worship!† Langdon smiled, pacing before the blackboard, chewing an apple. â€Å"Mr. Hitzrot!† he shouted. A young man dozing in back sat up with a start. â€Å"What! Me?† Langdon pointed to a Renaissance art poster on the wall. â€Å"Who is that man kneeling before God?† â€Å"Um†¦ some saint?† â€Å"Brilliant. And how do you know he's a saint?† â€Å"He's got a halo?† â€Å"Excellent, and does that golden halo remind you of anything?† Hitzrot broke into a smile. â€Å"Yeah! Those Egyptian things we studied last term. Those†¦ um†¦ sun disks!† â€Å"Thank you, Hitzrot. Go back to sleep.† Langdon turned back to the class. â€Å"Halos, like much of Christian symbology, were borrowed from the ancient Egyptian religion of sun worship. Christianity is filled with examples of sun worship.† â€Å"Excuse me?† the girl in front said. â€Å"I go to church all the time, and I don't see much sun worshiping going on!† â€Å"Really? What do you celebrate on December twenty-fifth?† â€Å"Christmas. The birth of Jesus Christ.† â€Å"And yet according to the Bible, Christ was born in March, so what are we doing celebrating in late December?† Silence. Langdon smiled. â€Å"December twenty-fifth, my friends, is the ancient pagan holiday of sol invictus – Unconquered Sun – coinciding with the winter solstice. It's that wonderful time of year when the sun returns, and the days start getting longer.† Langdon took another bite of apple. â€Å"Conquering religions,† he continued, â€Å"often adopt existing holidays to make conversion less shocking. It's called transmutation. It helps people acclimatize to the new faith. Worshipers keep the same holy dates, pray in the same sacred locations, use a similar symbology†¦ and they simply substitute a different god.† Now the girl in front looked furious. â€Å"You're implying Christianity is just some kind of†¦ repackaged sun worship!† â€Å"Not at all. Christianity did not borrow only from sun worship. The ritual of Christian canonization is taken from the ancient ‘god-making' rite of Euhemerus. The practice of ‘god-eating' – that is, Holy Communion – was borrowed from the Aztecs. Even the concept of Christ dying for our sins is arguably not exclusively Christian; the self-sacrifice of a young man to absolve the sins of his people appears in the earliest tradition of the Quetzalcoatl.† The girl glared. â€Å"So, is anything in Christianity original?† â€Å"Very little in any organized faith is truly original. Religions are not born from scratch. They grow from one another. Modern religion is a collage†¦ an assimilated historical record of man's quest to understand the divine.† â€Å"Um†¦ hold on,† Hitzrot ventured, sounding awake now. â€Å"I know something Christian that's original. How about our image of God? Christian art never portrays God as the hawk sun god, or as an Aztec, or as anything weird. It always shows God as an old man with a white beard. So our image of God is original, right?† Langdon smiled. â€Å"When the early Christian converts abandoned their former deities – pagan gods, Roman gods, Greek, sun, Mithraic, whatever – they asked the church what their new Christian God looked like. Wisely, the church chose the most feared, powerful†¦ and familiar face in all of recorded history.† Hitzrot looked skeptical. â€Å"An old man with a white, flowing beard?† Langdon pointed to a hierarchy of ancient gods on the wall. At the top sat an old man with a white, flowing beard. â€Å"Does Zeus look familiar?† The class ended right on cue. â€Å"Good evening,† a man's voice said. Langdon jumped. He was back in the Pantheon. He turned to face an elderly man in a blue cape with a red cross on the chest. The man gave him a gray-toothed smile. â€Å"You're English, right?† The man's accent was thick Tuscan. Langdon blinked, confused. â€Å"Actually, no. I'm American.† The man looked embarrassed. â€Å"Oh heavens, forgive me. You were so nicely dressed, I just figured†¦ my apologies.† â€Å"Can I help you?† Langdon asked, his heart beating wildly. â€Å"Actually I thought perhaps I could help you. I am the cicerone here.† The man pointed proudly to his city-issued badge. â€Å"It is my job to make your visit to Rome more interesting.† More interesting? Langdon was certain this particular visit to Rome was plenty interesting. â€Å"You look like a man of distinction,† the guide fawned, â€Å"no doubt more interested in culture than most. Perhaps I can give you some history on this fascinating building.† Langdon smiled politely. â€Å"Kind of you, but I'm actually an art historian myself, and – â€Å" â€Å"Superb!† The man's eyes lit up like he'd hit the jackpot. â€Å"Then you will no doubt find this delightful!† â€Å"I think I'd prefer to – â€Å" â€Å"The Pantheon,† the man declared, launching into his memorized spiel, â€Å"was built by Marcus Agrippa in 27 B.C.† â€Å"Yes,† Langdon interjected, â€Å"and rebuilt by Hadrian in 119 A.D.† â€Å"It was the world's largest free-standing dome until 1960 when it was eclipsed by the Superdome in New Orleans!† Langdon groaned. The man was unstoppable. â€Å"And a fifth-century theologian once called the Pantheon the House of the Devil, warning that the hole in the roof was an entrance for demons!† Langdon blocked him out. His eyes climbed skyward to the oculus, and the memory of Vittoria's suggested plot flashed a bone-numbing image in his mind†¦ a branded cardinal falling through the hole and hitting the marble floor. Now that would be a media event. Langdon found himself scanning the Pantheon for reporters. None. He inhaled deeply. It was an absurd idea. The logistics of pulling off a stunt like that would be ridiculous. As Langdon moved off to continue his inspection, the babbling docent followed like a love-starved puppy. Remind me, Langdon thought to himself, there's nothing worse than a gung ho art historian. Across the room, Vittoria was immersed in her own search. Standing all alone for the first time since she had heard the news of her father, she felt the stark reality of the last eight hours closing in around her. Her father had been murdered – cruelly and abruptly. Almost equally painful was that her father's creation had been corrupted – now a tool of terrorists. Vittoria was plagued with guilt to think that it was her invention that had enabled the antimatter to be transported†¦ her canister that was now counting down inside the Vatican. In an effort to serve her father's quest for the simplicity of truth†¦ she had become a conspirator of chaos. Oddly, the only thing that felt right in her life at the moment was the presence of a total stranger. Robert Langdon. She found an inexplicable refuge in his eyes†¦ like the harmony of the oceans she had left behind early that morning. She was glad he was there. Not only had he been a source of strength and hope for her, Langdon had used his quick mind to render this one chance to catch her father's killer. Vittoria breathed deeply as she continued her search, moving around the perimeter. She was overwhelmed by the unexpected images of personal revenge that had dominated her thoughts all day. Even as a sworn lover of all life†¦ she wanted this executioner dead. No amount of good karma could make her turn the other cheek today. Alarmed and electrified, she sensed something coursing through her Italian blood that she had never felt before†¦ the whispers of Sicilian ancestors defending family honor with brutal justice. Vendetta, Vittoria thought, and for the first time in her life understood. Visions of reprisal spurred her on. She approached the tomb of Raphael Santi. Even from a distance she could tell this guy was special. His casket, unlike the others, was protected by a Plexiglas shield and recessed into the wall. Through the barrier she could see the front of the sarcophagus. Raphael Santi 1483-1520 Vittoria studied the grave and then read the one-sentence descriptive plaque beside Raphael's tomb. Then she read it again. Then†¦ she read it again. A moment later, she was dashing in horror across the floor. â€Å"Robert! Robert!†